PRECONDITIONS OF UNIVERSITY SYSTEM REFORMING IN GERMAN STATES AT THE BEGINNING OF XIX CENTURY

Roman Prybora
(Kirovohrad, Ukraine)

В статті розглянуто передумови реформування університетської системи в Німецьких землях на початку ХІХ ст., виокремлено їх основні групи: суспільно-політичні, економічні та світоглядно-ідеологічні. Окрему увагу звернено на аналіз першоджерел закордонного походження щодо причин закриття німецьких університетів на рубежі XVIII–ХIХ ст. Визначено роль університетів Пруссії, Баварії та Австрії того часу в об’єднанні німецької нації та вихованні інтелектуальної та культурної еліти в німецьких землях. Обґрунтовано необхідність подальшого дослідження університетської системи Німеччини.

Ключові слова: історія вищої школи, Німеччина, університетська освіта, реформування, секуляризація.

В статье рассматриваются предпосылки реформирования университетской системы Германских земель в начале ХІХ в., выделены их основные группы: общественно-политические, экономические и мировоззренческо-идеологические. Отдельное внимание обращено на анализ иностранных первоисточников относительно причин закрытия немецких университетов на рубеже XVIII–ХIХ вв. Определена роль университетов Пруссии, Баварии и Австрии того времени в объединении немецкой нации и воспитании интеллектуальной и культурной элиты германских земель. Обоснована необходимость дальнейшего исследования университетской системы Германии.

Ключевые слова: история высшей школы, Германия, университетское образование, реформирование, секуляризация.

In the article the basic preconditions of the university system reforming in German states at the beginning of the XIX century are revealed. There are distinguished three groups of them, precisely, socio-political, economic and ideological. Special attention is drawn to the analysis of foreign original sources as for the reasons of closure of the German universities in the late 1700s and early 1800s. Peculiarities of the attempts to introduce French university system in Germany are highlighted. The role and place of Prussian, Bavarian and Austrian universities in the upbringing of new intellectual and cultural elite in German states and their impact on the consolidation of the German nation are determined. The necessity of further exploration of the University system in Germany is well-grounded.

Key words: history of higher education, German states, university education, reforming, secularization.

Modern tendencies in the development of education of Ukraine with its primary task to integrate into international space provide for the necessity of renovation of the Ukrainian system of higher education. The process of the university system modernization in our country is impossible without the exploration and analysis of foreign countries’ educational experience, in particular that of Germany. A vital role for the history of coming into being of the German state, development of its science and education was played by German universities in the early XIX century. Exploration of such experience will benefit reform optimization and help to find new approaches to solving topical problems in the field of higher education and state building in Ukraine.

The German university system of the late 1700s early 1800s was the subject of researches conducted by Ph. Altbach, L. Boehm, T. Ellwein, W. Engelhorn, M. Kusch, P. Maassen, F. Paulsen, F. Ringer and others. The basic social and political transformations in the European countries in the XIX century and Germany in particular were explored by E. Lipson, T. Nipperdey, E. Turner and E. Weiss.

The problems of higher education and the influence of education reforms on the organisation of studying in higher educational institutions were the topic of researches by the Ukrainian and Russian scientists N. Abashkina, A. Andreev. J. Vasyuk, I. Valueva, N. Vorobyova, B. Vulfson, N. Kichuk, K. Korsak, Z. Mal’kova, M. Nikandrova and M. Sokolova. Nevertheless, despite such a wide range of scientific works, the preconditions, which caused the intense development of German universities at the beginning of the XIX century, have not yet been thoroughly analysed, which in itself predetermined the topic of our research.

The aim of our work is to analyse the socio-political, economic and ideological preconditions of the university system reforming in German states at the beginning of the XIX century.

During the XVIII century and down to Napoleon’s time “Germany” was merely an expression. It was not the name of a state, and it scarcely signified a nation. During the Reformation at the XVI century Luther had addressed an appeal to the nobility of the German nation, but he was using terms vague and not clearly defined. There was not such uniformity of character and manners that the Germans could think of themselves as one. Before the XIX century in the territory of modern Germany there were more than two hundred German states, principalities and free cities independent of each other but formally bound together in the Holy Roman Empire. Austria thanks to the House of the Habsburg enjoyed precedency, but Prussia was the stronger military power, and therefore a formidable rival. The rest of the German states grouped themselves round Austria or Prussia, clinging strenuously to their independence and jealously resisting any encroachment upon their sovereign rights [6: 42]. Whereas in Spain and in France there had long ago arisen a strong central government, able in the course of time to weld together diverse populations and make them feel that they were part of one whole [8: 212–213].

The first step forward to the consolidation of Germans into one nation came at the beginning of the XIX century, when Napoleon conquered most German states and swept the old system away. The number of states was reduced from more than two hundred to thirty eight. There was also a reorganization of state, administrative, legal and military systems. Similar reforms were brought about in education. Though during this time the yoke of France was so heavy on Prussians and other Germans, that their common German nationality seemed more precious than ever before [8: 216]. The British historian E. Lipson wrote “Nowhere was the strength of Napoleon greater than in Germany, nowhere was the reaction against his domination more far-reaching in its consequences” [6: 42].

The war between France and Germany resulted in the reduction of the number of German universities. Over 20 years (since 1798 to 1818) Germany lost 18 out of 35 its acting universities [4: 71].

Some of the oldest German universities with great history and traditions, like those of Cologne, Erfurt and Wittenberg, ceased to exist. Professor Ch. Meiners, who worked in the Göttingen University at that time and studied the conditions of German universities, stated the drastic worsening of the university crisis in Germany at the end of the XVIII century. In the Preface to his book „Über die Verfassung und Verwaltung deutscher Universitäten“ (1801) he wrote „It is both well-known and sad that almost all German higher schools over the last ten years, and especially the last five, have not only been declining, but have already considerably declined” [1: 61].

Ch. Meiners distinguished three main reasons of the university closure:

1. War conflicts between France and anirevolution coalitions on the territory of the Holly Roman Empire, which began in mid-1790s and happened almost each year.
2. Reduction of the universities funding, which led to bankruptcy of small universities with not so many students. These universities did not profit from their tiny parcels of lands during the warfare and the war drove their students off.
3. Loss of state protection. Almost all closed universities were dissolved by their new governments or fundamentally new political structures which came into existence in Europe as a result of Napoleon’s war campaigns [1: 61-62].

E. Lipson states one more reason, which is the universities’ opposition work. Scholars and men of letters gave a powerful impulse to the uprising against Napoleon. As the Austrian statesman K. Metternich put it down “Universities were inspiring the youths confided to them with contempt for, and opposition to, the legally established order. A whole class of future State officials, professors, and incipient literary men, is here ripened for revolution” [6: 46].

Such activity predominated in Prussia and spread in smaller German states. The university students organized in a national patriotic society Burschenschaft, which undertook reactionary work against the new administration and therefore was considered dangerous and suffered persecution [8: 223].

Four German universities were closed by the French Republic in 1798 after enclosing the left bank of the Rhine.

By the Bavaria monarch’s orders in 1803 and 1809–1810 five universities, which existed on the conquered territories, ceased to exist. One more university was closed after joining lands by the Duke of Nassau. Two universities were dissolved in 1809 in the Kingdom of Westphalia. And finally in 1811 and 1816-1818 Prussia abolished six its universities, among which only two had been formed in Prussia in the XVIII century whereas other four existed on the annexed territories. Two of these universities were transferred to other places and joined to the already existing universities.

If we consider the process chronologically, we can conclude that it was Catholic universities which were first affected. This was a direct consequence of Napoleon’s policy towards the church possessions in the Holy Roman Empire. In autumn of 1794 French troops occupied the left bank of the Rhine, including the lands of Cologne, Mainz and Trier Archbishoprics. Under the peace treaty dictated by Bonaparte in Campo Formio (1797) the area was annexed by the French Republic, after which the universities in Trier, Mainz, Cologne and Bonn were dissolved and their property passed to the state. In the place of universities there were opened French departments central schools [9: 54].

However, the secularization of church lands in the Holy Roman Empire had just begun. It ended with the adoption by the German states in 1803 of the new structure of the empire, according to which all spiritual principalities were abolished and their territories at the suggestion of Napoleon were used as compensation for those German principalities, who had suffered territorial and economic losses as a result of French conquest [4: 113].

In 1803 Augsburg, Bamberg and Würzburg Archbishoprics were joined to Bavaria. Immediately after the annexation of new lands the University of Bamberg and the University of Dillingen, which was subject to the Augsburg Archbishoprics, were closed. The same situation occurred in the territory of the Duchy of Nassau with the Fulda University. Thus, throughout several years, Germany lost seven Catholic universities [4: 113].

Secularization has affected not only the Catholic universities, but also the Protestant ones. In 1809 the authorities of the Kingdom decided to close two Protestant Universities of Rinteln and Helmstedt [2: 119].

Bavarian oldest university, founded by the House of the Wittelsbach in the mid-XV century in Ingolstadt in the upper Danube, in 1800 because of the threat of the French troops was moved to Landshut, near the eastern border of Bavaria. Simultaneously with the organization of the new location there began the university modernization. The ideologist and the engine of the Bavarian reforms, including education, was Count Maximilian von Montgelas (1759–1838), an outstanding statesman. It was his policy that allowed making in Landshut the transition from a privileged scientists’ corporation to the controlled by the state higher educational institution, which by 1825 had become one of five largest universities in Germany having about 1,000 students. After the transferring of the University to Munich (1826), it became a recognized intellectual center of German Catholicism [4: 114–115].

Another modernized university of Bavaria in 1803 was the University of Würzburg, which in the last quarter of the XVIII century won fame as one of the best in Catholic lands [5: 33]. In 1803–1806 it was here that Friedrich Schelling (1775–1854) began to give his famous lectures on natural philosophy.

Due to the concluded in 1805 by Count Montgelas alliance with Napoleon the Elector of Bavaria received the title of a King after the official collapse of the Holy Roman Empire (1806), and although as a result of further territorial changes Würzburg stopped being a part of Bavaria and became a separate “Grand Duchy”. The lands of the Tyrol Kingdom and those of the former imperial city of Nürnberg were included, which meant joining the Universities of Innsbruck and Altdorf.

The University of Altdorf founded in the XVII century by the initiative of Nuremberg townspeople received the university status, where new Lutheran subjects studied. Perhaps that is why the government had originally planned to keep it. However, by the decree of September 24, 1809, King Maximilian I closed the University in Altdorf, which was due to the accession to Bavaria of the Principality of Bayreuth, which since 1806 had been under French protectorate.

Thus, the policy of the Bavarian government witnessed a clear desire to save funds that were directed to the development of universities. Therefore of several nearby higher educational institutions, which previously belonged to different states, with their accession to the Kingdom of Bavaria there was only one left.

Similarly to Bavaria, Prussia had to solve similar tasks to optimize its university system with the only difference that it had received new universities not as an ally but rather as the winner of Napoleon. Prussia annexed Erfurt the university of which was closed.

Near Halle there was a well-known Wittenberg University. In 1817 the Universities of Halle and Wittenberg merged into one (Vereinigte Friedrichs – Universität Halle – Wittenberg). All practical training took place in Halle, while in Wittenberg there was only the seminar on theology [5: 35].

Finally, in October 18, 1818 of King of Prussia Friedrich Wilhelm III by his decree closed just three universities – in Münster, Paderborn and Duisburg.

The researcher of German higher education W. Engelhorn blamed the kings for the closure of German universities, since the prince, despite the devastation of war were trying to keep their universities. Heidelberg is an example of these [5: 62].

Difficulties in the modernization of universities in the era of the Napoleonic wars were associated with the French intervention in the political life of Germany, which is clearly shown by the history of the Kingdom of Westphalia universities. Westphalia was planned by French administrators as an “exemplary” state, which was to show the progressive ways of development for the whole territory of the former Holy Roman Empire and simultaneously strengthen the strategic influence of France in the region. The capital of the kingdom was the city of Kassel, and the crown passed to Napoleon’s brother Jerome.

The Kingdom of Westphalia incorporated five Protestant universities: Halle (of Prussia), Göttingen (from Hanover) Helmstedt (from Brunswick), Marburg and Rinteln (from Hesse-Kassel), which now had to integrate into a new system of relations with the state.

To manage this system in Kassel there was created the position of general director of public instruction, which on Napoleon’s personal recommendation was taken by Johannes von Müller, the famous Swiss historian and public activist, who belonged to the scientific and literary elite of Weimar. This appointment contributed to the development of the university [5: 64].

The French subsequently concluded that the existence of five universities for a country with a population of two million, which was Westphalia, was unacceptable expenditure for the budget. After Müller’s death in 1809 his successor put the plan to close universities to its logical conclusion. Universities in Rinteln and Helmstedt were chosen to be closed next.

Expansion of the French university model took place in the ideological direction. The revolutionary transformation in France affected the universities and contributed to the construction of a new education system “from scratch”. In 1789 by the law all the existing French universities with their possessions were subordinate to the state, and later in 1792 by the decree of the Legislative Assembly and the new law on education 1794 universities in their previous form were destroyed along with the other remnants of aristocratic feudal regime. These events were preconditions for the liquidation of universities in different parts of Europe.

There was consolidated the principle of partition of former universities into autonomous professional schools. The advantage of oriented higher education was that it made possible to quickly provide the state and especially the army with well-trained specialists. In addition, individual elements of the system, such as the Ecole Polytechnique in Paris, became centers of fundamental science, especially in physics and mathematics. This interest is explained by the need for military and engineering. This indicated the attractiveness of the new educational model abroad [9, 52].

The French university model took its final shape after Napoleon had passed the law “On the University of France” in May 10, 1806. In this Ordinance, the emperor formulated the new leading idea of a French university [9, 53].

Created after the French Revolution, a new educational system in practice implemented an alternative to universities which had been discussed by the Enlightenment followers and proved its effectiveness. The main features of this system were the complete opposite to the university principles. Namely: first, advanced sciences were taught not together, but at the annual, not linked highly specialized schools, where educational process was aimed at mastering the practical profession. Secondly, the universities performed just educational function, whereas scientific research was the prerogative of special institutions. Thirdly, the whole educational system was under the centralized control of the state, which provided training by one and obligatory for every specialty curriculum [2: 112].

Another precondition for the reforming of higher education in German states was a low level of teaching staff. According to Rousseau “ignorant” teachers were appointed to the university departments, the examinations for doctoral degrees were turned into a mere formality, and scientists’ diplomas were acquired by those who could pay for them. The most famous philosophers were not associated with universities but rather with scientific activities led by patrons. For example, T. Hobbes was tutor to Lord Cavendish of Hardwick. J. Locke was personal physician and tutor to the son of Earl of Shaftesbury. G. Lessing headed the ducal library in Wolfenbüttel under the commission of the Duke of Brunswick. J. Herder was the court preacher in Weimar. R. Descartes, F. Bacon and B. Spinoza paid for their own intellectual activity.

Publishing gained its weigh as an alternative to patronage system. In the XVIII century Germany the number of secular books in German twice exceeded the number of religious publications in Latin [3: 828].

Deprived of its possessions during the Reformation church could no longer promote priest careers, which resulted in a decline of the theological faculties students.

A new class of bourgeoisie, which emerged in Germany in the late XVIII century and took responsibility for the modernization of the country, was a class of people who were educated at the universities. Thus universities played an important role in public and private life – in contrast to England and France. This tradition was restored in the XIX century on the secular basis [7: 416]. The middle class preferred legal education. At the same time as an alternative to universities there appeared secondary schools – Gymnasia for classic subjects and Ritterakademia for teaching aristocratic manners – the program of which was predominantly secular.

Expanding of educational space which began in Prussia after the approval of compulsory primary education (1763) led to an increase in the number of educated people who were dissatisfied with their social status. There arouse the necessity of educational facilities. In this situation the university as an educational and research institution was supported by the philosophy of idealism. Idealists’ interest in the reforming of university was linked to their social stratum. I. Kant, J. Fichte, F. Schelling, G. Hegel and F. Schleiermacher belonged to the social stratum that got a chance to improve the social status through the development of the system of public schools. They found themselves in a situation of fierce competition for academic positions, forcing them to wait for the opening of an academic vacancies for years.

Thus, the article stipulates that the main preconditions of the reforming of higher education in the German states in the early XIX century were socio-political, economic and ideological. These preconditions were closely interrelated and ensued from each other. The socio-political ones included Napoleon conquest of German states, the beginning of their consolidation and the development and of some (Prussia, Austria, Bavaria) in the full impact states, the idea of national identity and unity of the German nation. The economic grounds implied the ruining of the material base of universities as a result of war, loss of protectorate from the state institutions, the need for professionals who would satisfy the demands of the economic system of the time. Ideological preconditions were provided by the development of philosophy and idealism as well as the secularization of universities.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. АндреевА.Ю. Российские университеты XVIII–первой половины XIX века в контексте университетской истории Европы / А.Ю. Андреев– М: Знак, 2009. – 640 с.
2. Валуева И.П. История университетов Европы ХІ–ХІХ вв. / И.П. Валуева. – М.: ЕВРАЗИЯ, 2010. – 415 с.
3. Коллинз Р. Социология философий. Глобальная теория интеллектуального изменения / Р. Коллинз. – Новосибирск: Сибирский хронограф, 2002. – 1281 с.
4. Boehm L. DieLudwig-Maximilians-UniversitätinihrenFakultäten. ErsterBand. / L. Boehm,Duncker & HumblotVerlag, 1972. – 451 s.
5. Engelhorn W. Die Universität Würzburg 1803–1848: ein Beitrag zur Verfassungs- und Institutionengeschichte. (Quellen und Beiträge zur Geschichte der Universität Würzburg, Bd. 7) / W. Engelhorn. – Neustadt an der Aisch: Degener Verlag, 1987. – 462 s.
6. Lipson E. Europeinthenineteenthcentury: anhistory / E. Lipson – London: A&C BlackLtd., 1921. – 298 p.
7. NipperdeyT. Germany from Napoleon to Bismarck: 1800–1866. [tr. Daniel Nolan] / T. Nipperdey, – Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2014. – 760
8. Turner E. R. Europein 1789-1920 / E. R. Turner – London: William Heinemann, 1921. – 687 p.
9. Weiss E. Montgelas. Band2: Der Architekt des modernen bayerischen Staates 1799–1838 / E. Weiss – München: C.H.Beck Verlag, 2005. – 872

ВІДОМОСТІ ПРО АВТОРА

Прибора Роман Іванович – здобувач кафедри педагогіки та освітнього менеджменту Кіровоградського державного педагогічного університету імені Володимира Винниченка.